Syllabus
GS Paper I – Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
Context
India has experienced five distinct phases of urbanization, starting from the mercantile Harappan period and progressing to the industrial cities that emerged after independence.
Rise and fall of cities in India
Introduction
India’s urbanization journey can be broadly categorized into five distinct phases, each marking significant socio-economic transformations. The first phase began with the mercantile Harappan civilization, known for its advanced urban planning and trade networks. This was followed by the rise of ancient cities during the Vedic and Mauryan periods, characterized by political and cultural consolidation. The medieval period saw the emergence of fortified cities under various dynasties. The colonial era introduced industrial towns driven by British economic interests. Finally, post-independence India witnessed rapid urban growth, fueled by industrialization and modernization, shaping the contemporary urban landscape.
First Urbanization
- First Urbanization: The initial urbanization occurred under the mercantile Harappans in the north-western region of India.
- Period: 2500 to 1900 BCE.
- Vast Civilization: This civilization covered an extensive area, larger than its contemporaries in Egypt, China, and Mesopotamia.
- Indus Valley Civilization Cities:
- Harappa and Mohenjodaro: Located in present-day Pakistan.
- Rakhigarhi: Situated in Haryana.
- Kalibangan: Found in Rajasthan.
- Dholavira and Lothal: Located in Gujarat.
- Grid Layout: The cities were meticulously designed with a grid pattern, featuring broad, intersecting streets with distinct entry and exit points to regulate movement.
- Standardized Brick Construction: Structures were built using uniform bricks in a 1:2:4 ratio, indicating a centralized production and distribution system.
- Citadels: Several cities had fortified citadels, likely used for defense or administrative functions.
- Drainage Systems: The cities had advanced drainage systems, including underground pipes and covered drains, to prevent flooding and maintain hygiene.
- Water Supply Systems: Wells and reservoirs were utilized to provide water to the city’s residents.
- Granaries and Warehouses: Large granaries and warehouses were discovered, suggesting a well-organized system of food storage and distribution.
- Great Bath: Mohenjo-Daro featured a large, rectangular structure known as the Great Bath, possibly used for ritual cleansing or bathing.
- Assembly Hall: Harappa had a large, rectangular building that may have served as an assembly hall or meeting place.
- Trade and Commerce: The cities engaged in extensive trade, with evidence of long-distance trade networks.
- Maritime Trade Centers: Dholavira and Lothal were significant centers of maritime trade.
- Art and Crafts: The Indus Valley people were skilled artisans, producing a variety of artifacts, including pottery, seals, and jewelry.
Second Urbanization
- Mahajanapadas: The second phase of urbanization occurred approximately 1,500 years after the Harappan civilization.
- Period: This era is dated around 500 BCE.
- Aryan Arrival: Around 1500 BCE, the Aryans or Indo-Europeans migrated from Southern Russia via the Oxus region, bringing horses with them. Predominantly male, they intermarried with local women, altering the genetic composition of the population. Gradually, they moved eastward into the Gangetic Plain.
- Trade Relations: The Ganga plains established trade connections with the Indus plains and beyond.
- Cities: Prominent cities included Taxila, Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kashi, Kaushambi, and Ujjain.
- Fortified Cities: Many urban centers were fortified with walls and gates for protection against invasions.
- Diverse Cultures: These cities, due to their strategic locations, exhibited a variety of cultural influences.
- Centralized Administration: Cities in Magadha were marked by a centralized administration, featuring a powerful king and an efficient bureaucracy.
- Religious Centers: Cities like Kashi were significant religious hubs, attracting pilgrims and scholars from various regions.
- Mercantile Cities: Merchant activities were crucial in shaping the urban landscape during the Mahajanapada and Magadha periods, driven by expanding trade networks.
- Trade Routes: Cities such as Taxila, Pataliputra, and Ujjain, situated on major trade routes, experienced rapid growth due to their strategic locations.
- Toll Taxes: Toll taxes became essential for the protection of highways.
- Emergence of New Philosophies: The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was closely linked with the growth of trade and mercantile activities. Buddhist literature provides insights into the urbanization of this period.
- First Coinage: The first punch-marked coins in India were minted by the Mahajanapadas and merchant guilds of this region.
- Decline of Trade: Around the 5th century CE, the fall of Rome, a key trading partner, and the invasion of the Hunas led to a decline in trade. Consequently, the importance of merchants diminished, leading to the disintegration of the Mahajanapadas.
Third Urbanization
- Temple Urbanization: The third phase of urbanization occurred as temple cities emerged across South India and Southeast Asia.
- Period: This phase spanned from the 7th to the 12th century, with the Chola period in the 10th century marking the peak of temple urbanization.
- Cities: Key cities included Madurai, Kancheepuram, Thanjavur, and Srirangam.
- Temple as the Nerve Center: Temples were the focal points of political and economic activities, surrounded by markets, courtiers, and courtesans.
- Spiritual and Cultural Hubs: Temples served as centers for spiritual and cultural activities, hosting religious ceremonies, festivals, and educational institutions. This attracted scholars, artists, and craftsmen, contributing to urban development.
- Pilgrimage Centers: Temples often became significant pilgrimage sites, drawing devotees and fostering the growth of surrounding settlements.
- Agricultural Focus: These cities were predominantly agricultural rather than mercantile. Following the decline of export-led trade in the 4th-5th centuries, agriculture and related activities became the main economic drivers.
- Devadana Lands: Temples received endowments of land and other resources, generating income through agriculture, trade, and other economic activities.
- Brahmadeya: As Buddhism declined, the practice of Brahmadeya, or donations to Brahmins and temples, began to rise.
- Society: These temple cities were home to Brahmin priests, Kshatriya patrons, Vaishya merchants, artists, and others.
- Social Changes: Endogamy became prevalent, and the caste system became more rigid.
Fourth Urbanization
- Muslim Metropolis: The fourth phase of urbanization is characterized by the rise of Muslim metropolises during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.
- Period: This urbanization spanned from the 12th to the 17th century CE. According to Abu-l Fazl, by 1594, there were 2,837 towns, with 180 recognized as larger cities.
- Cities:
- Delhi Sultanate: Key cities included Delhi, Hisar, Hansi, Sirsa, Meerut, and Aligarh.
- Mughal Cities: Prominent cities were Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Sikandra, and Shahjahanabad.
- Agricultural Focus: The economy was primarily based on agriculture.
- Feudal System: Courtiers were compensated with a share of the village produce.
- Religious Character: Sufism, Dargahs (shrines), and Pirs played significant roles. The Jama Masjid became a central site in these cities.
- Cultural Centers: Cities like Lahore and Agra were renowned cultural hubs under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, celebrated for their poetry, music, and arts.
- Bazaars and Markets: Lively bazaars and markets provided a wide array of goods and services to the populace.
- Fusion of Architectural Styles: Mughal architecture often blended elements from Persian and Islamic styles, creating a unique and distinctive aesthetic.
Fifth Urbanization
- Postcolonial Cities: The fifth phase of urbanization is marked by the rise of colonial and post-colonial cities.
- Period: This phase began in the 17th century and continues onwards.
- New Factors: The dynamics of international trade, mercantilism, and capitalism began to shape societal structures.
- Colonial Cities:
- British Colonial Cities: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Shimla.
- French Cities: Pondicherry, Mahe.
- Portuguese Cities: Goa, Diu, Daman.
- Dutch Cities: Masulipatnam.
- Mercantile Culture: Colonial cities reflected the mercantile ethos of European powers.
- Fortified Settlements: Major coastal cities like Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta, and Kochi started as fortified settlements established by colonial powers such as the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British.
- European Bases: European commercial companies established bases in various locations during the Mughal era:
- Portuguese in Panaji in 1510.
- Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605.
- British in Madras in 1639.
- French in Pondicherry in 1673.
- Trading Centers: The expansion of commercial activities led to the growth of towns around these trading hubs.
- Economic Capitals: Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, colonial port cities like Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay rapidly emerged as new economic capitals.
- Hill Stations: The development of hill stations such as Shimla and Ooty was a distinctive feature of colonial urban development.
- Cultural Integration: The Indo-Saracenic architectural style emerged, blending Indian and European cultural elements.
- Religious and Administrative Buildings:
- Churches and Cathedrals: Bom Basilica in Goa, Santhome Church.
- Administrative Buildings: Fort St. George, Fort St. William.
Post-Independence Cities
- The development of planned cities was driven by industrialization and the reorganization of states.
- Capital Cities: New capital cities were established with the creation of new states during state reorganization.
- Chandigarh: Designed by the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier.
- Bhubaneswar: Chosen as the capital of Odisha in 1948, integrating the temple town into its modern administrative framework.
- Gandhinagar: Established in 1960 as the capital of Gujarat.
- Industrial Cities: As part of India’s Five Year Plans, heavy industrialization led to the development of industrial cities such as Bhilai, Jamshedpur, and Rourkela.
Conclusion
India’s urbanization journey reflects a dynamic evolution from the mercantile Harappan period to the industrial cities post-independence. Each phase, from the fortified cities of the Mahajanapadas and temple-centric urbanization in South India, to the Muslim metropolises of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, and finally the colonial and post-colonial cities, showcases distinct socio-economic and cultural transformations. Post-independence, planned cities emerged, driven by industrialization and state reorganization. This progression highlights India’s adaptability and resilience, shaping its urban landscape to meet changing political, economic, and cultural needs over millennia.
Reference: IE
Related PYQ
Q1. To what extent was the urban planning and culture of the Indus valley civilization provided inputs to the present-day urbanisation? Discuss. [UPSC CSE – 2014 Mains]
Q2. The ancient civilization in the Indian subcontinent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its cultural traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the present day. Comment. [UPSC CSE – 2015 Mains]
Practice Question
Discuss the five distinct phases of urbanization in India, highlighting the socio-economic and cultural transformations during each phase. [250 words]
Guidelines to Answer
- Introduction: Briefly introduce the concept of urbanization and its significance in India’s historical context.
- Phase-wise Discussion:
- First Urbanization: Harappan civilization – focus on mercantile activities and urban planning.
- Second Urbanization: Mahajanapadas – fortified cities, trade, and cultural diversity.
- Third Urbanization: Temple cities – spiritual and cultural hubs, agricultural focus.
- Fourth Urbanization: Muslim metropolises – agricultural economy, feudal system, cultural centers.
- Fifth Urbanization: Colonial and post-colonial cities – industrialization, planned cities, economic capitals.
- Socio-Economic and Cultural Transformations: Highlight the key changes in society, economy, and culture during each phase.
- Conclusion: Summarize the evolution of urbanization in India and its impact on contemporary urban landscapes.