Syllabus
GS Paper I – Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian subcontinent);
Context
The International Seabed Authority recently elected a new chief and discussed implementing an international moratorium on deep-sea metal extraction until comprehensive research on its impacts is available.
Deep Sea Metals and its Mining
Introduction
Deep-sea metals, including polymetallic nodules rich in manganese, nickel, cobalt, and copper, are found on the ocean floor at depths of around 4,000 to 6,000 meters. These metals are crucial for high-tech industries and clean energy technologies. For India, deep-sea mining holds strategic importance as it can reduce dependence on imports, support the country’s energy transition, and enhance national security by securing essential resources.
Deep Sea Metals
- Deep sea metals refer to the metallic and non-metallic ores present on the deep sea ocean floor.
- Deep sea minerals are found in the high seas, which account for more than 50% of the world’s oceans. They occur in different forms in various parts of the ocean.
- Polymetallic Nodules:
- Polymetallic nodules are potato-sized lumps formed over millions of years from sediment deposits. They are composed mainly of manganese, cobalt, copper, and nickel. These nodules are found at depths of 4–6 km in all major oceans.
- For example, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone between Hawaii and Mexico holds vast amounts of manganese nodules. India is exploring the Carlsberg Ridge and Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount for polymetallic nodules.
- Polymetallic Sulfides: Polymetallic sulfides contain large amounts of copper, zinc, lead, iron, silver, and gold.
- Cobalt-Rich Crusts: Cobalt-rich crusts (CRCs) form on sediment-free rock surfaces around oceanic seamounts, ocean plateaus, and other elevated features.
- Polymetallic Nodules:
Regulation of deep sea mining
- Common Rights
- Common heritage of mankind: Deep sea mineral areas in high seas are classified as the “common heritage of mankind.”
- Shared resources: Raw materials found here belong to everyone, not one particular country.
- Deep Sea Mining Stages
- Prospecting: Searching for minerals and estimating their size, shape, and value.
- Exploration: Analyzing the resources, testing potential recovery, and assessing potential economic and environmental extraction impacts.
- Exploitation: Recovering these resources.
- Opponents: Germany, Brazil, and the Pacific island nation of Palau.
- Supporters: China, Norway, Japan, and the microstate Nauru in the Central Pacific.
- Responsible Authority
- International Seabed Authority (ISA): Potential mining activities in these regions are the responsibility of the ISA, as outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- Licenses: The ISA has issued 31 licenses for exploration and no licenses for extraction yet.
Impacts of Deep Sea Mining
- Benthic disturbance: Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms.
- Benthic organisms: Animals that live on the sea floor, called benthos, most of which are invertebrates (e.g., sea anemones, sponges, corals, sea stars, sea urchins, worms, bivalves, crabs).
- Reduced dissolved oxygen: Recent studies show that minerals present in manganese nodules can produce oxygen.
- Affect on deep sea biodiversity: Mining might impact over 5,000 different species in the region.
- Vulnerable species: Species adapted to extreme conditions like food scarcity, absence of sunlight, and high water pressure become highly vulnerable, especially due to mining robots.
- Pollution: Mining can create light and noise pollution in deep seas. Possible leaks and spills of fuels and other chemicals used in the mining process can cause chemical pollution.
- Toxicity of sediment plumes: After extracting valuable materials, slurry sediment plumes are sometimes pumped back into the sea. These plumes may transport metal complexes (e.g., copper, cadmium) that can be released into the water column in concentrations toxic to marine biota.
- Impact on fishing activity: Areas above the mining sites could be permanently disrupted.
- Ecosystem damage: Deep sea mining could permanently damage fragile marine systems.
Way forward
- Comprehensive studies: Essential to improve our understanding of deep-sea ecosystems and the vital services they provide.
- UNEP’s emphasis: The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) stresses the need for a comprehensive assessment of the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining. To date, researchers have explored only around 1% of the deep sea area and its potential.
- Understand mining risks: Comprehensively assess the risks of mining to ensure effective protection of deep-sea environments.
- Transparent impact assessments: Conduct transparent impact assessments based on comprehensive baseline studies.
- Circular economic principles: Incorporate principles to reuse and recycle minerals, promoting sustainability.
- Global consensus: Create a global agreement on sharing the benefits from deep-sea mineral resources.
Conclusion
Deep-sea minerals hold significant potential for technological and economic advancements, but their extraction poses substantial environmental risks. Comprehensive studies and transparent impact assessments are crucial to understand these ecosystems better. Adopting circular economic principles and achieving global consensus on benefit-sharing can ensure sustainable and equitable use of these resources. Balancing exploration with environmental protection is essential for the responsible development of deep-sea mining.
References: IE
Related PYQ
Comment on the resource potentials of the long coastline of India and highlight the status of natural hazard preparedness in these areas. [UPSC CSE – 2023 Mains]
Practice Question
Discuss the significance of deep-sea metals and the challenges associated with their extraction. Highlight the regulatory frameworks governing deep-sea mining and suggest measures to ensure sustainable and equitable utilization of these resources. (250 words)