ARISTOTLE

Syllabus
GS Paper 4 – Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India and World.

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle (384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath.
Aristotle’s teachings laid the groundwork for modern science and his philosophical system, Aristotelianism, greatly influenced medieval scholarship.
His philosophical ideas continue to be a topic of discussion in contemporary philosophy.

Summum Bonum

‘Summum Bonum’ is a Latin term meaning the ‘highest good’.
It is used in philosophy to denote the ultimate end or purpose of human actions.
In Aristotle’s ethical philosophy, he talks about the concept of ‘summum bonum’, which is the ultimate goal that all human actions strive to achieve.
Each action we undertake has a purpose or goal. However, many of these goals are just stepping stones to reach other goals or methods to attain other ends.
Eventually, we arrive at a goal that is the ultimate one and doesn’t act as a means to achieve any other end.
Aristotle’s concept of Summum Bonum is deeply personal and can vary greatly from person to person, depending on their values, passions, and life experiences.

Examples

A doctor might find their Summum Bonum in healing and caring for patients. Their ultimate good is the health and well-being of their patients, which they achieve through their medical practice.
An environmentalist could see their Summum Bonum as preserving and protecting the environment. Their actions, such as advocating for sustainable practices and educating others about environmental issues, contribute to this ultimate good.

Concept of Happiness

Aristotle viewed happiness as the ultimate objective or purpose that covers one’s entire life.
According to him, happiness is not a fleeting state but the ultimate value of your life as you live up to your potential as a human being.
Happiness, for Aristotle, involves achieving all the goods that contribute to perfecting human nature and enriching human life over a lifetime.
Aristotle categorized happiness into three forms: pleasure, politics, and contemplation.
He proposed that virtuous statesmen aim for happiness and emphasized that virtuous activities are essential and unique aspects of human happiness.
Aristotle’s definition of true happiness or “Eudaimonia” encompasses four main aspects: prudence, justice, temperance, and courage.
He suggested that the secret to happiness lies in the continuous practice of virtuosity.

Concept of Virtues

Aristotle believed virtues are the balance between extremes of excess and deficiency, and these extremes are considered vices.
Virtues are the developed skill to identify and act upon what is good or right, guided by reason.
Virtues are not inborn but are acquired through consistent practice and habituation.
Those who are virtuous know, choose, and desire virtuous actions for their own sake.
Aristotle’s “virtue ethics” places a strong emphasis on the moral character of the individual.
Just like any skill, developing virtuous traits requires time, effort, and practice according to Aristotle.
Cultivating virtues is seen by Aristotle as a means to achieve a “good life”.

Golden mean

The Golden Mean is an ethical concept that proposes virtue as a middle ground between two extremes: excess and deficiency.
According to Aristotle, virtues are character traits or attitudes that adhere to the principle of the golden mean.
The Golden Mean suggests that virtuous conduct, like courage, is a balance between two extremes: recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency).
Courage is seen as a balance between recklessness and cowardice, confidence between arrogance and self-deprecation, and generosity between profligacy and stinginess.
The Golden Mean can guide our decisions by helping us understand that virtues lie in the middle of two extreme states: excess and deficiency.

Examples

A soldier who runs away from the battlefield exhibits cowardice, which is a deficiency of courage. On the other hand, a soldier who recklessly charges against sixty enemy soldiers exhibits an excess of courage. The Golden Mean here would be a soldier who judiciously assesses the situation and acts bravely but not recklessly.
If a person gives away all their money without thought for their own needs, they are being wasteful, which is an excess of generosity. On the other hand, if a person never gives to others, they are being stingy, which is a deficiency of generosity. The Golden Mean would be a person who gives to others in a thoughtful and balanced way.

Concept of Justice

Aristotle saw justice as a virtue and proposed that justice involves treating equal individuals equally and unequal individuals unequally, but in proportion to their relevant differences.
Aristotle divided justice into three types: distributive, corrective, and legal.
Distributive Justice: This type of justice pertains to the equitable distribution of goods and resources in a society.
Corrective Justice: Corrective justice is about rectifying committed wrongs. It focuses on holding individuals responsible for their actions.
Legal Justice: Legal justice involves adherence to laws and promotes virtue.
Aristotle considered justice as the crucial virtue in an ideal state because it targets the community’s common interest.

Concept of freedom of will

Aristotle believes that humans possess free will because they have the liberty to select their actions within the boundaries of their nature.
Aristotle suggests that the freedom cherished by proponents of ancient Greek democracy has two aspects: personal freedom to live as one wishes and political freedom to rule and be ruled alternately.
Aristotle defines freedom as the ability to guide oneself towards goals that one’s reason correctly identifies as worth choosing.
Three Elements of Free Will: According to Aristotle, ‘free will’ comprises three elements: thumos (an aggressive, unstoppable desire for honor), reason, and a specifically practical or ‘calculative’ mode of reason that focuses on deliberation and making prudent choices.
Aristotle argues that freedom of human will implies that men can choose between good and evil. The correct moral choices follow from the exercise of reason.

Politics and State

Aristotle believes that Politics(Political Science) is a division of Ethics. Politics is the ethics of the State.
An individual’s morality finds its end in the State, and is not possible without State.
Welfare of citizens is the objective of the State, and people can be happy and virtuous only in a State.
Man is a political animal. The State educates men in civic virtues and provides opportunities for exercising virtues.

Famous Quotes of Aristotle

“Education is bitter, but its fruit is sweet.”
“All knowledge should be subject to examination and reason.”
“Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.”
“Virtue consists more in doing good than refraining from evil.”
“Happiness depends upon ourselves.”
“Man is the noblest of all animals. Separate him from law and justice and he is the worst.”
“The value of life lies in the power of contemplation and not mere survival.”

Reference

Practice Question

Discuss Aristotle’s concept of virtue ethics and its relevance in contemporary society.

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